CHAP. 6. (8.)—OF THE NATURE OF THE STARS; OF THE
MOTION OF THE PLANETS.
Let us return from this digression to the other parts
of nature. The stars which are described as fixed in the
heavens[1], are not, as the vulgar suppose, attached each of
them to different individuals[2], the brighter to the rich, those
that are less so to the poor, and the dim to the aged, shining
according to the lot of the individual, and separately assigned
to mortals; for they have neither come into existence, nor
do they perish in connexion with particular persons, nor
does a falling star indicate that any one is dead. We are
not so closely connected with the heavens as that the shining
of the stars is affected by our death[3]. When they are supposed to
shoot or fall[4], they throw out, by the force of their
fire, as if from an excess of nutriment, the superabundance
of the humour which they have absorbed, as we observe to
take place from the oil in our lamps, when they are burning[5].
The nature of the celestial bodies is eternal, being interwoven, as
it were, with the world, and, by this union, rendering it solid; but
they exert their most powerful influence
on the earth. This, notwithstanding its subtilty, may be
known by the clearness and the magnitude of the effect, as
we shall point out in the proper place[6]. The account of the
circles of the heavens will be better understood when we
come to speak of the earth, since they have all a reference to
it; except what has been discovered respecting the Zodiac,
which I shall now detail.
Anaximander the Milesian, in the 58th olympiad[7], is said
to have been the first who understood its obliquity, and thus
opened the road to a correct knowledge of the subject[8].
Afterwards Cleostratus made the signs in it, first marking
those of Aries and Sagittarius; Atlas had formed the sphere
long before this time[9]. But now, leaving the further consideration of this subject, we must treat of the bodies that
are situated between the earth and the heavens[10].
It is certain that the star called Saturn is the highest, and
therefore appears the smallest, that he passes through the
largest circuit, and that he is at least thirty years in completing
it[11]. The course of all the planets, and among others
of the Sun, and the Moon, is in the contrary direction to
that of the heavens[12], that is towards the left, while the hea-
vens are rapidly carried about to the right[13]. And although,
by the stars constantly revolving with immense velocity,
they are raised up, and hurried on to the part where they
set, yet they are all forced, by a motion of their own, in an
opposite direction[14]; and this is so ordered, lest the air, being
always moved in the same direction, by the constant whirling
of the heavens, should accumulate into one mass, whereas
now it is divided and separated and beaten into small pieces,
by the opposite motion of the different stars. Saturn is a
star of a cold and rigid nature, while the orbit of Jupiter is
much lower, and is carried round in twelve years[15]. The next
star, Mars, which some persons call Hercules[16], is of a fiery
and burning nature, and from its nearness to the sun is carried
round in little less than two years[17]. In consequence of
the excessive heat of this star and the rigidity of Saturn,
Jupiter, which is interposed between the two, is tempered
by both of them, and is thus rendered salutary. The path
of the Sun consists of 360 degrees; but, in order that the
shadow may return to the same point of the dial[18], we are
obliged to add, in each year, five days and the fourth part of
a day. On this account an intercalary day is given to every
fifth year[19], that the period of the seasons may agree with
that of the Sun.
Below the Sun[20] revolves the great star called Venus, wandering
with an alternate motion[21], and, even in its surnames,
rivalling the Sun and the Moon. For when it precedes the
day and rises in the morning, it receives the name of Lucifer,
as if it were another sun, hastening on the day. On the
contrary, when it shines in the west, it is named Vesper, as
prolonging the light, and performing the office of the moon.
Pythagoras, the Samian, was the first who discovered its
nature[22], about the 62nd olympiad, in the 222nd year of the
City[23]. It excels all the other stars in size, and its brilliancy
is so considerable, that it is the only star which produces a
shadow by its rays. There has, consequently, been great
interest made for its name; some have called it the star of
Juno[24], others of Isis, and others of the Mother of the Gods.
By its influence everything in the earth is generated. For,
as it rises in either direction, it sprinkles everything with
its genial dew, and not only matures the productions of the
earth, but stimulates all living things[25]. It completes the
circuit of the zodiac in 348 days, never receding from the
sun more than 46 degrees, according to Timæus[26].
Similarly circumstanced, but by no means equal in size
and in power, next to it, is the star Mercury, by some called
Apollo[27]; it is carried in a lower orbit, and moves in a course
which is quicker by nine days, shining sometimes before the
rising of the sun, and at other times after its setting, but
never going farther from it than 23 degrees[28], as we learn
from Timæus and Sosigenes[29]. The nature of these two stars
is peculiar, and is not the same with those mentioned above,
for those are seen to recede from the sun through one-third
or one-fourth part of the heavens, and are often seen opposite
to it. They have also other larger circuits, in which they
make their complete revolutions, as will be described in the
account of the great year[30].
(9.) But the Moon[31], which is the last of the stars, and the
one the most connected with the earth, the remedy provided
by nature for darkness, excels all the others in its admirable
qualities. By the variety of appearances which it assumes, it
puzzles the observers, mortified that they should be the most
ignorant concerning that star which is the nearest to them.
She is always either waxing or waning; sometimes her disc
is curved into horns, sometimes it is divided into two equal
portions, and at other times it is swelled out into a full orb;
sometimes she appears spotted[32] and suddenly becomes very
bright; she appears very large with her full orb and suddenly becomes invisible; now continuing during all the night,
now rising late, and now aiding the light of the sun during
a part of the day; becoming eclipsed and yet being visible
while she is eclipsed; concealing herself at the end of the
month and yet not supposed to be eclipsed[33]. Sometimes
she is low down, sometimes she is high up, and that not according to one uniform course, being at one time raised up
to the heavens, at other times almost contiguous to the
mountains; now elevated in the north, now depressed in the
south; all which circumstances having been noticed by Endymion, a report was spread about, that he was in love with
the moon[34]. We are not indeed sufficiently grateful to those,
who, with so much labour and care, have enlightened us with
this light[35]; while, so diseased is the human mind, that we
take pleasure in writing the annals of blood and slaughter,
in order that the crimes of men may be made known to those
who are ignorant of the constitution of the world itself.
Being nearest to the axis[36], and therefore having the smallest orbit, the Moon passes in twenty-seven days and the one-third part of a day[37], through the same space for which Saturn,
the highest of the planets, as was stated above, requires thirty
years. After remaining for two days in conjunction with the
sun, on the thirtieth day she again very slowly emerges to pursue her accustomed course[38]. I know not whether she ought
not to be considered as our instructress in everything that can
be known respecting the heavens; as that the year is divided
into the twelve divisions of the months, since she follows the
sun for the same number of times, until he returns to the
commencement of his course; and that her brightness, as
well as that of the other stars, is regulated by that of the
sun, if indeed they all of them shine by light borrowed from
him, such as we see floating about, when it is reflected from
the surface of water. On this account it is that she dissolves
so much moisture, by a gentle and less perfect force, and
adds to the quantity of that which the rays of the sun con-
sume[39]. On this account she appears with an unequal light,
because being full only when she is in opposition, on all the
remaining days she shows only so much of herself to the
earth as she receives light from the sun[40]. She is not seen
in conjunction, because, at that time, she sends back the
whole stream of light to the source whence she has derived
it. That the stars generally are nourished by the terrestrial
moisture is evident, because, when the moon is only half visible she is sometimes seen spotted, her power of absorbing
moisture not having been powerful enough; for the spots
are nothing else than the dregs of the earth drawn up along
with the moisture[41]. (10.) But her eclipses and those of the
sun, the most wonderful of all the phænomena of nature, and
which are like prodigies, serve to indicate the magnitude of
these bodies and the shadow[42] which they cast.
1. "affixa mundo." The peculiar use of the word mundus in this passage is worthy of remark, in connexion with note1, ch. 1. page 13.
2. We have many references in Pliny to the influence of the stars upon
the earth and its inhabitants, constituting what was formerly regarded as
so important a science, judicial astrology. Ptolemy has drawn up a
regular code of it in his "Centum dicta," or "Centiloquiums." We
have a highly interesting account of the supposed science, its origin, progress, and general principles, in Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences, p. 293 et seq. I may also refer to the same work for a sketch of
the history of astronomy among the Greeks and the other nations of
antiquity.
3. There are certain metaphorical expressions, which have originated
from this opinion, adopted by the moderns; "his star is set;" "the
star of his fortune," &c.
4. Ovid, when he compares Phaëton to a falling star, remarks, concerning this meteor,—
"Etsi non cecidit, potuit ceeidisse videri." Metam. ii. 322.
5. Manilius supposes that comets are produced and rendered luminous
by an operation very similar to the one described in the text; i. 815 et seq.
Seneca, in the commencement of his Nat. Quæst., and in other parts of
the same treatise, refers to this subject. His remarks may be worth
perusing by those who are curious to learn the hypotheses of the ancients
on subjects of natural science. We may remark, that Seneca's opinions
are, on many points, more correct than our author's.
6. The author probably refers to that part of his work in which he
treats on agriculture, particularly to the 17th and 18th books.
7. The æra of the Olympiads commenced in the year 776 before Christ;
each olympiad consists of 4 years; the 58th olympiad will therefore
include the interval 548 to 544 B.C. The 21st vol. of the "Universal
History" consists entirely of a "chronological table," and we have a
useful table of the same kind in Brewster's Encycl., article "Chronology."
8. "rerum fores aperuisse....traditur." An account of the
astronomy of Anaximander is contained in Brewster's Encycl., article
"Astronomy," p. 587, and in the article "Anaximander" in the
supplement to the same work by Scott of Aberdeen. I may remark, that these two
accounts do not quite agree in their estimate of his merits; the latter
author considers his opinions more correct. We have also an account of
Anaximander in Stanley, pt. 2. p. 1 et seq., and in Enfield,
i. 154 et seq.
9. In the translation of Ajasson, ii. 261–7, we have some
valuable observations by Marcus, respecting the origin and progress
of astronomy
among the Greeks, and the share which the individuals mentioned in the
text respectively had in its advancement; also some interesting remarks
on the history of Atlas. Diodorus Siculus says, that "he was the first
that discovered the knowledge of the sphere; whence arose the common
opinion, that he carried the world upon his shoulders." Booth's trans.
p. 115.
10. "nune relicto mundi ipsius corpore, reliqua inter cœlum terrasque
tractentur." I have already had occasion to remark upon the various
modes in which the author uses the word mundius; by cœlum, in this
passage, he means the body or region beyond the planets, which is conceived to contain the fixed stars. Sphœra, in the preceding sentence,
may be supposed to mean the celestial globe.
11. "ac trigesimo anno ad brevissima sedis suæ principia regredi;" I
confess myself unable to offer any literal explanation of this passage; nor
do the remarks of the commentators appear to me satisfactory; see Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 241, 2. It is translated by Ajasson
"en trente ans il reviens à l'espace minime d'où il est parti." The period of the sidereal revolutions of the planets, as stated by Mrs. Somerville, in her "Mechanism of the Heavens," and by Sir J. Herschel, in
his "Treatise on Astronomy," are respectively as follows:—
| days. | days. |
| Mercury | 87c˙9705 | 87c˙9692580 |
| Venus | 224c˙7 | 224c˙7007869 |
| Earth | 365c˙2564 | 365c˙2563612 |
| Mars | 686c˙99 | 686c˙9796458 |
| Jupiter | 4332c˙65 | 4332c˙5848212 |
| Saturn | 10759c˙4 | 10759c˙2198174 |
| Somerville, p. 358. | | Herschel, p. 416. |
12. "'mundo;' hoc est, cælo inerrantium stellarum." Hardouin, in
Lemaire, ii. 242.
13. Our author supposes, that the spectator has his face directed towards
the south, as is the case with the modern observers. We are, however,
informed by Hardouin, that this was not the uniform practice among the
ancients; see the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 242, and of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 269.
14. The constant revolution refers to the apparent daily motion; the
opposite direction to their annual course through the zodiac. Ptolemy
gives an account of this double motion in his Magna Constructio, i. 7.
15. For the exact period, according to Somerville and Herschel, see
note3, p. 27.
16. Aristotle informs us, that Mars was also called Hercules or Pyrosis;
De Mundo, cap. ii. p. 602. See also Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710. Hyginus is said by Hardouin to give the name of Hercules to the planet
Mars, but this appears to be an inaccuracy; he describes the planet under
its ordinary appellation; lib. ii. p. 62; and ii. 78, 9.
17. Cicero, speaking of the period of Mars, says, "Quatuor et viginti
mensibus, sex, ut opinor, diebus minus;" De Nat. Deor. For the exact
period, see note3, p. 27.
18. "Sed ut observatio umbrarum ejus redeat ad notas." According to
the interpretation ot Hardouin, "Ad easdem lineas in solari horologio."
Lemaire, ii. 243.
19. This is an example of the mode of computation which we meet with
among the ancients, where, in speaking of the period of a revolution, both
the time preceding and that following the interval are included.
20. The division of the planets into superior and inferior was not known
to Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. ii. p. 602, to Plato, Timæus, p. 318, 319, or
the older Greek astronomers. It was first made by the Egyptians, and
was transferred from them to the Romans. It is one of the points in
which our author differs from Aristotle. See the remarks of Marcus in
Ajasson, ii. 242 et seq. Marcus notices the various points which prove
the deficiency of Pliny's knowledge of astronomy; he particularizes the
four following :—his ignorance of the true situation of the constellations;
his erroneous opinion respecting the cause of the seasons; his account of
the phases of the moon, and of the position of the cardinal points. He
appears not to have been aware, that certain astronomical phænomena
undergo a regular progression, but supposed that they remained, at the
time when he wrote, in the same state as in the age of Hipparchus or
the original observers. Columella, when treating on these subjects, describes the phænomena according to the ancient calculation, but he informs
us, that he adopts it, because it was the one in popular use, and better
known by the farmers (De Re Rust. ix. 14), while Pliny appears not to
have been aware of the inaccuracy.
21. "Modo solem antegrediens, modo subsequens." Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 243.
22. It was not known to the earlier writers that Lucifer and Vesper were
the same star, differently situated with respect to the Sun. Playfair
remarks, that Venus is the only planet mentioned in the sacred
writings,
and in the most ancient poets, such as Hesiod and Homer; Outlines,
ii. 156.
23. There has been much discussion among the commentators respecting
the correctness of the figures in the text; according to the sera of the
olympiads, the date referred to will be between the years 750 and 754 B.C.;
the foundation of Rome is commonly referred to the year 753 B.C. See
the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 278, 9.
24. Aristotle informs us, that it was called either Phosphorus, Juno, or
Venus; De Mundo, cap. 2. t. i. p. 602. See also Hyginus, Poet. Astr.
lib. iii. p. 76, 7; and Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710.
25. It will be scarcely necessary to refer the reader to the well-known
commencement of Lucretius's poem for the illustration of this passage;
it is remarkable that Pliny does not refer to this writer.
26. The periodical revolution of Venus is 224c˙7 days, see
note3, p. 27. Its
greatest elongation is 47°1?; Somerville, § 641. p. 391.
27. According to Aristotle, this planet had the three appellations of
Stilbon, Mercury, and Apollo; De Mundo, cap. 2. p. 602; see also Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710. Cicero inverts the order of the planets; he
places Mercury next to Mars, and says of Venus, that it is "infima
quinque errantium, terræque proxima;" De Nat. Deor. ii. 53. Aristotle
places the stars in the same order, ubi supra, and he is followed in this
by Apuleius, ubi supra; this appears to have been the case with the
Stoics generally; see Enfield's Phil. i. 339.
28. For the periodical revolution of Mercury see note3, p. 27. Its greatest
elongation, according to Playfair, p. 160, is 28 °. Mrs. Somerville,
p. 386, states it to be 28°8?. Ptolemy supposed it to be
26c˙5 degrees;
Almagest, ix. 7. We learn from Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 246, that there
is considerable variation in the MSS. with respect to the greatest elongation of Mercury.
29. Sosigenes was an Egyptian mathematician and astronomer, who is
said to have assisted Cæsar in the formation of his Kalendar, as our
author informs us in a subsequent part of his work, xviii. 25; see also
Aikin, Gen. Biog., in loco; Enfield's Phil. ii. 96; Whewell, p. 210; and
Hardouin's "Index Auctorum," in Lemaire, i. 213.
30. Concerning the "magnus annus" Cicero remarks, "efficitur cum
solis et lunæ et quinque errantium ad eandem inter se comparationem,
confectis omnibus spatiis, est facta conversio." De Nat. Deor. ii. 51.
See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 281–3.
31. For the various appellations which the moon has received in the
ancient and modern languages, and their relation to each other, the reader
is referred to the learned remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 283–5.
32. Marcus conceives that the epithet maculosa does not refer to what
are called the spots on the moon, but to the circumstance of the edge of
the disc being not illuminated when it is near the full; Ajasson, ii. 286.
But, from the way in which the word is employed at the end of the
chapter, and from the explanation which is given of the cause of the
"maculæ," I think it ought to be referred to the spotted appearance of
the face of the moon.
33. "Quum laborare non creditur." It was a vulgar notion among the
ancients, that when the moon is eclipsed, she is suffering from the influence of magicians and enchanters, who are endeavouring to draw her
down to the earth, in order to aid them in their superstitious ceremonies.
It was conceived that she might be relieved from her sufferings by loud
noises of various kinds which should drown the songs of the magicians.
Allusion is frequently made to this custom by the ancient poets, as Virgil,
Æn. i. 742, Manilius, i. 227, and Juvenal, vi. 444; and the language has
been transferred to the moderns, as in Beattie's Minstrel, ii. 47, "To
ease of fancied pangs the labouring moon."
34. We have some interesting remarks by Marcus respecting Endymion,
and also on the share which Solon and Thales had in correcting the lunar
observations; Ajasson, ii. 288–290.
35. "Lucem nobis aperuere in hac luce."
36. "Cardo."
37. Astronomers describe two different revolutions or periods of the
moon; the synodical and the sidereal. The synodical marks the time
in which the moon passes from one conjunction with the sun to the next
conjunction, or other similar position with respect to the sun. The sidereal period is the time in which the moon returns to the same position
with respect to the stars, or in which it makes a complete revolution round
the earth. These numbers are, for the synodical period,
29d 12h 44m 287s,
and for the sidereal, 27d 7h 43m
11c˙5s; Herschel, pp. 213, 224.
38. Our author, as Marcus remarks, "a compté par nombres ronds;"
Ajasson, ii. 291; the correct number may be found in the preceding
note.
39. It was a general opinion among the ancients, and one which was
entertained until lately by many of the moderns, that the moon
possessed
the power of evaporating the water of the ocean. This opinion appears
to have been derived, at least in part, from the effect which the moon
produces on the tides.
40. "quantum ex sole ipsa concipiat;" from this passage, taken singly,
it might be concluded, that the author supposed the quantity of light
received by the moon to differ at different times; but the succeeding
sentence seems to prove that this is not the case; see the remarks of
Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 249. Marcus, however, takes a different
view of the
subject; Ajasson, ii. 291, 292. He had previously pointed out Pliny's
opinion respecting the phases of the moon, as one of the circumstances
which indicate his ignorance of astronomy, ut supra, ii. 245, 246.
41. This doctrine is maintained by Seneca, Quæst. Nat. lib. ii.
§ 5. p. 701,
702. From the allusion which is made to it by Anacreon, in his 19th
ode, we may presume that it was the current opinion among the ancients.
42. I may remark, that Poinsinet, in this passage, substitutes "umbra"
for "umbræque," contrary to the authority of all the MSS., merely because it accords better with his ideas of correct reasoning. Although it
may be of little consequence in this particular sentence, yet, as
such liberties are not unfrequently taken, I think it necessary to
state my opinion,
that this mode of proceeding is never to be admitted, and that it has
proved a source of serious injury to classical literature. In this account
of the astronomical phenomena, as well as in all the other scientific
dissertations that occur in our author, my aim has been to transfer
into our
language the exact sense of the original, without addition or correction.
Our object in reading Pliny is not to acquire a knowledge of natural philosophy, which might be better learned from the commonest elementary
work of the present day, but to ascertain what were the opinions of the
learned on such subjects when Pliny wrote. I make this remark, because
I have seldom if ever perused a translation of any classical author, where,
on scientific topics, the translator has not endeavoured, more or less, to
correct the mistakes of the original, and to adapt his translation to the
state of modern science.